Chinese  Education 

from 

The  Western  Viewpoint 


By 

YEN  SUN  HO 

M.  A.  NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY 


RAND  McNALLY  &  COMPANY 
CHICAGO  NEW  YORK 


Copyright,  IQ13,  by 
Rand.  McNally  &  Company 


f4L 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I.     Introductory  Note 5 

II.     Education  before  the  Chow  Dynasty      9 

III.     Education  during  the  Chow  Dynasty     14 

IV.     The  Appointment  System      .      .      .29 

V.     The  Examination  System       ...     34 

VI.     New  Chinese  Education    .  .      .42 

VII.    Educational     Changes     under     the 

Republican  Regime      .      .      .      .69 

VIII.     Final  Considerations 75 

Bibliography 90 


M518450 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

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INTRODUCTORY  NOTE 

T^HE  following  pages  contain  a  general 
survey  of  the  educational  develop- 
jTient  of  China  up  to  the  present  time. 
This  is,  as  far  as  the  writer's  knowledge 
goes,  a  pioneer  work  and,  as  such, 
contains  probably  many  errors.  He  has 
tried,  however,  to  be  accurate  through- 
out in  the  selection  of  material  and  the 
translation  of  original  sources. 

The  occidental  students  of  educational 
history  generally  have  a  hazy  and  in- 
adequate idea  of  what  the  term  "  Chinese 
education'*  really  connotes.  Some  speak 
of  the  examination  system,  which  forms 
but  a  link  in  the  whole  chain  of  the 
educational  development  of  China,  as 
though  it  constituted  the  whole  history 
of  Chinese  education.  While  it  is  true 
that  old  Chinese  education  since  the 
founding   of   the   Appointment    System 


6  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

had  been  of  a  htttnanistic  type,  it  does 
not  follow,  as  Professor  Monroe  dogmat- 
ically asserts,  that  Chinese  literatiire 
is  so  inferior  to  the  occidental  classical 
literature  that  ' 'when  the  general  resiilts 
upon  intellectual  life  and  social  develop- 
ment are  considered,  there  is  little  basis 
for  comparison/'^  If  Chinese  literature 
has  not  produced  great  results  upon 
social  and  intellectual  life,  it  has  been 
due  not  to  its  lack  of  content-value 
but  to  the  emphasis  laid  upon  its  formal 
side.  To  look  for  real  Chinese  literature 
under  the  old  system  of  education  woiild 
be  like  the  attempt  to  discover  the 
real  Aristotle  in  the  period  of  scholasti- 
cism in  European  history.  Monroe  also 
states,  in  reference  to  the  content  of 
Chinese  education,  that  in  studying  the 
teachings  of  Chinese  literature  ''the 
principle  is  seldom  discovered  on  account 
of   the    precepts.'*^    He    would    reduce 

1  Monroe,  Paul.    History  of  Education,  p.  43. 
'  Ibid.y  p.  20. 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  7 

the  literature  of  China  to  a  mere  body 
of  recipes  and  prescriptions.  In  support 
of  his  assertions,  he  cites  a  few  passages 
from  Li  Ki,  one  of  the  thirteen  classics, 
but  does  not  seem  to  know  that  the  book 
he  quotes  from  is  especially  intended 
to  be  a  book  of  ''Don'ts."  One  is  not 
justified  in  making  a  generalization  out 
of  a  single  instance. 

I  have  no  intention  to  engage  in  a 
polemic  against  Professor  Monroe,  but 
wish  to  point  out  the  fact  that  the 
aim  and  content  of  old  Chinese  education 
has  not  been  taken  at  its  true  value 
In  this  paper  I  have  endeavored  to  take 
an  objective  attitude  toward  the  sub- 
ject and  to  reduce  the  personal  element 
to  a  minimum.  Some  errors,  I  hope, 
may  be  thus  avoided. 

The  old  education,  too  antiquated 
and  defective  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
modem  man,  has  been  discarded  once 
for  all,  and  in  the  effort  to  reorganize 
her  educational  system,  China  has  much 


8  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

to  learn  from  the  Occident.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  the  whole  subject  has  been 
treated  from  the  western  viewpoint,  that 
is,  with  the  view  to  discovering  points  of 
resemblance  and  contrast  between  occi- 
dental and  Chinese  education. 


II 

EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  CHOW 
DYNASTY 

(2357-1 122  B.C.) 

T)  EFORE  the  time  of  Confucius  (552- 
449  B.C.)  the  wisdom  of  Chinese 
antiquity  had  built  up  settled  principles 
as  to  education,  and  these  settled  prin- 
ciples had  been  handed  down  from 
generation  to  generation  for  hundreds 
of  years,  taught  by  father  to  son,  and 
regarded  as  the  highest  wisdom. 

The  substance  of  these  principles  was 
that  virtue  is  built  up  not  so  much 
through  good  statutes  as  by  means  of 
right  customs  and  pious  habits.  Here 
imitation  plays  an  important  role.  The 
ancients  in  China  said  that  men  naturally 
and  unconsciously  mold  their  lives  accord- 
ing to  the  models  they  admire.  A 
state  is  in  a  bad  condition  when  it  has 
to  resort  to  legal  enactments  to  hold 


lo  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

back  vice  and  crime.  They  said  that 
wise  magistrates  would  not  post  up  long 
proclamations  and  elaborate  decrees  in 
public  places,  but  would  rather  see  to  it 
that  the  people  have  a  love  for  justice 
and  that  honesty  is  firmly  rooted  in 
their  minds.  Natural  sentiments  are 
exalted  above  legal  restraints.  It  is 
ineffective  to  try  to  reform  a  people  by 
hedging  them  about  with  burdensome 
police  regulations.  Laws  were  in  danger 
of  degenerating  into  mere  dead  letters 
unless  the  people,  for  the  control  of 
whom  they  are  designed,  have  been 
properly  trained  and  bred  to  a  strict 
obedience  and  respect  thereto. 

With  these  preliminary  remarks,  the 
aim  of  Chinese  education  in  this  period 
becomes  obvious.  Briefly  stated,  it  was 
to  give  the  people  such  training  and 
discipline,  both  by  word  of  mouth  and 
by  living  examples,  as  to  enable  them 
to  live  the  right  kind  of  life  and  to  be 
good  citizens.     Education  was  regarded 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  ii 

as  the  least  expensive  but  the  most 
effective  means  of  social  control.  This 
aim  is,  to  be  sure,  a  narrow  one.  But 
that  it  was  understood  in  that  remote 
age  is  a  significant  fact.  May  we  not 
regard  it  as  an  adumbration  of  the 
truth  embodied  in  the  modern  systems 
of  national  education,  which  was  first 
perceived  in  the  Occident  by  a  few 
great  minds,  as,  for  example,  ^*the 
Early  American  settlers,  who  feared 
lest  good  learning  should  be  buried  in 
the  graves  of  their  fathers,  and  who 
held  a  simple  faith  in  the  divine  efficacy 
of  education  with  the  same  earnestness 
that  they  cherished  their  religion;  and 
Luther  who  held  it  the  first  duty  of 
citizens  to  educate  their  children;  Knox, 
too,  the  father  of  Scotch  education; 
and  Mulcaster,  the  great  English  school- 
master."^ 

The   curriculum   was   determined   by 
this  practical  and  ethical  aim.     History 

1  Hughes,  R.  E.     The  Making  Oj  Citizens f  p.  3. 


12  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

records  that  the  Emperor  Shun  (2357- 
2206  B.C.)  appointed  Chi  Minister  of 
Teaching  to  superintend  the  teaching 
of  what  ought  to  be  translated  as  the 
''Five  Himianities.'*^  These  are  the 
ethical  principles  that  should  govern  five 
relations  in  old  Chinese  society,  namely, 
those  between  father  and  son,  king  and 
subject,  husband  and  wife,  old  and 
young,  and  friend  and  friend.  These 
relations  are  respectively  love,  righteous- 
ness, attention  to  their  honors,  respect, 
and  sincerity.  The  idea  was  that  with 
these  principles  inculcated  in  the  minds  of 
the  people,  social  stability  was  secured. 
As  to  the  organization  of  the  schools, 
we  have  no  sufficient  data  to  enable  us 
to  arrive  at  any  definite  conclusion. 
Education  was  yet  in  its  rudimentary 
stage.  The  name  for  the  common  school 
during  the  Hsia  Dynasty  (2205-1766 
B.C.)  was  Si  Haii,  which  was  later 
changed  to  Tso  Hsioh  in  the  Yin  Dynasty 

1  Giles,  H.  A.     Chinese  Four  Books. 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  13 

(1766-1 122  B.c.).^  This  brief  survey  pre- 
pares us  for  a  study  of  the  education  in 
the  next  period,  the  Chow  Dynasty. 

1  Giles,  H.  A.    Ancient  History  or  Shu  Classic. 


Ill 

EDUCATION  DURING  THE  CHOW 
DYNASTY 

(1122-249  B.C.) 

T^E  ARE  now  entering  upon  a  period 
which  the  Chinese  regard  as  the 
Golden  Age  in  their  history.  It  was 
marked  by  great  changes  in  the  various 
departments  of  life.  Great  advance 
was  made  in  different  directions,  in 
science,  education,  philosophy,  and  the 
like.  Indeed,  it  was  in  that  age  that 
Chinese  culture  reached  the  highest 
development  that  it  has  ever  attained: 
hence  the  constant  reference  to  the 
Chow  Dynasty  in  the  writings  of  Chinese 
writers.  Here  otir  interest  is  limited  to 
the  educational  aspect.  The  education 
in  this  period  has  never  been  touched 
upon  by  foreign  writers  on  Chinese 
education,  not  even  by  Professor  Monroe 
in  his  History  of  Education,     Hence  it  is 


THE   WESTERN    VIEWPOINT  15 

with  the  view  of  supplying  this  deficiency 
that  this  chapter  is  written. 

Aim.  The  aim  of  education  in  this 
period  was,  as  might  be  expected,  a 
further  development  of  that  in  the 
preceding  one.  It  was  still  social  and 
ethical,  but  its  broad  and  much  more 
liberal  character  admits  of  a  variety 
of  subjects  of  instruction  of  which  the 
preceding  period  had  not  the  remotest 
hint.  Confucius  speaks  of  this  period 
as  an  age  of  refinement  and  culture.^ 
It  was  really  the  Periclean  Age  in  Chinese 
history.  It  might  be  said  that  here  we 
have  the  first  attempt  made  to  secure 
what  is  now  known  as  a  liberal  education, 
as  we  shall  see  when  we  turn  to  consider 
the  content. 

Content.  The  curriculum  of  the  lower 
schools  consisted  of  reading,  music,  poetry, 
calisthenics,  and  ethical  training,  while 
that  of  schools  of  a  higher  grade  (cor- 
responding to  the  present-day  colleges) 

1  Giles,  H.  A.     Chinese  Four  Books. 


i6  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

embraced  what  may  be  called  the  ''Six 
Liberal  Arts."  They  were  (i)  the  five 
ceremonies,  (2)  the  six  kinds  of  music, 
(3)  the  five  kinds  of  archery,  (4)  the 
five  kinds  of  chariot  driving,  (5)  the  six 
kinds  of  writing,  and  (6)  the  nine  kinds 
of  mathematics.^  Here  the  content  of 
education  reminds  one  of  the  Triviimi 
and  the  Quadrivitmi,  or  of  ''the  rudi- 
ments of  love,  of  war,  and  of  religion*' 
which  formed  the  educational  ideal  in 
the  age  of  chivalry.  It  was  a  com- 
bination of  the  Spartan  and  Athenian 
ideals,  intellectual  and  aesthetic  elements 
mingled  with  a  considerable  amount  of 
military  and  physical  training.  How- 
ever far  short  of  the  ideal  this  may  fall, 
it  can  hardly  be  gainsaid  that  here  we 
have  a  manifest  endeavor  to  secure  an 
harmonious  and  symmetrical  develop- 
ment of  body  and  mind,  so  characteristic 
of  the  Athenian  education.  Moreover, 
we  find  here  a  dim  realization  of  the 


1  Chou  Li,  one  of  the  thirteen  classics. 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  17 

fact  that  education  must  be  brought 
close  to  Hfe,  and  conceived  as  a  training 
for  the  activities  of  everyday  life. 

One  will  appreciate  this  educational 
ideal  all  the  more  when  he  comes 
to  consider  the  succeeding  periods  of 
Chinese  education,  where,  as  we  shall 
see  later,  education  becomes  a  rigid, 
cast-iron  system  of  mere  intellectual 
training  or  discipline  to  the  utter  neglect 
of  the  physical  aspect  of  instruction. 

The  organization  of  the  schools  was 
quite  akin  to  the  township  plan  so 
ardently  desired  by  the  veteran  educators 
in  the  United  States  of  America.  The  area 
of  the  unit  was  about  thirty-three  square 
miles;  about  the  same  as  the  township  in 
America,  covering  an  area  of  thirty-six 
square  miles.  The  principle  of  subdivision 
within  this  basic  unit  was  determined  by 
the  number  of  families.^  There  were 
usually  different  kinds  of  schools  in  each 
unit  district.   Thus,  for  example,  the  pupil 

1  Chou  Li,  one  of  the  thirteen  classics. 
2 


I8 


CHINESE  EDUCATION 


went  first  to  a  school  for  the  children  of 
twenty-five  families.  Finishing  instruc- 
tion here  he  went,  or  rather  was  promoted, 
to  a  higher  school,  covering  a  larger  area, 
that  is,  for  a  larger  number  of  families 
than  the  one  he  just  left,  until  he  reached 
the  top  school  for  the  whole  district. 
The  author  of  the  Chou  Lij  one  of 
the  thirteen  classics,  gave  the  average 
ntimber  of  common  schools  (the  lowest 
grade)  for  one  feudal  state  as  three 
thousand.  This  system  can  be  seen 
clearly  in  the  following  table,  which  is 
taken  from  the  figures  of  Professor 
C.  Y.  Wang  of  the  Peking  University. 


Table  showing  the  School  Districts  of  Chow 


Name  of  District 

Number 

of 
Families 

Name  of  Schools 

Number 

Inside 
of  Capital 

Outside 
of  Capital 

Inside 
of  Capital 

Outside 
of  Capital 

of 
Schools 

Lu 

Choo 
Tang 
Chow 
Village 

Li 

Hsien 
Sui 

25 

100 

500 

2,500 

12,500 

LuShu 

TangChu 
Chow  Chu 
Village 
Shiang 

Lu  Shu 

Pi"  Chu* 
Hsien  Chu 
Sui  Shiang 

3,000 

150 

6 

See  Note,  p.  ip- 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  19 

In  the  districts  those  graduates  from  the 
top  schools  who  proved  worthy  of  fiirther 
development  were  sent  to  what  were  called 
"National  Colleges*'  within  the  capital. 
Here  they  continued  their  education  until 
they  reached  the  stage  where  they  were 
fitted  to  enter  governmental  service. 

Such  is  a  general  survey  of  education 
in  this  period.  For  lack  of  sufficient 
data  we  are  not  able  to  go  into  the 
minute  details.  But  even  this  general 
treatment  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  the 
education  in  that  age.  This  treatment, 
however,  would  not  be  complete  if  we 
omit  the  education  of  Confucius,  which 
we  shall  consider  in  the  following  section. 

Educational  Theory  of  Confucius 

Confucius  was  the  one  great  educator 
that  China  has  produced.     He  had  in- 

Note:  Inside  the  capital  the  families  were  grouped 
in  fives  called  Be;  five  Bes  (25  families)  formed  one  Lu, 
four  Lus  (100  families)  one  Choo,  five  Choos  (500  families) 
one  Tang,  five  Tangs  (2,500  families)  one  Chow,  five 
Chows  (12,500  families)  a  village.  Outside  of  the  capital 
the  names  of  the  family  groups  were  different,  but  the 
number  in  each  subdivision  was  the  same. 


20  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

tended  to  be  a  statesman  and  to  embody 
his  political  ideals  in  some  one  of  those 
nimierous  states,  during  that  age  of  feu- 
dalism. After  many  years  of  traveling 
and  repeated  failures,  he  returned  to  his 
native  home,  in  the  province  of  Shang- 
tang,  to  devote  the  remainder  of  his  life 
to  the  great  work  of  teaching  and  writ- 
ing. He  established  a  school  on  the  bank 
of  Chu  Se  (River) .  He  had  gathered  around 
him  three  thousand  pupils,  seventy-two 
of  whom  became  distinguished  scholars, 
and  some  were  later  canonized. 

In  his  teaching  he  adopted  the  six 
arts  that  were  used  in  his  age.  He  was 
very  fond  of  music,  which  he  regarded  as 
the  chief  means  of  moral  training.  His 
conception  of  music  is  similar  to  the 
Greek  idea  of  ** purgation.''  *' Music,"  he 
says,  *'is  the  great  elevating  and  quick- 
ening influence,  and  stimiilates  to  the 
activity  of  the  highest  part  of  man's 
nature."^     He  also  participated  in  the 

1  Giles,  H.  A.     Confucian  Analects. 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  21 

prevalent  military  arts  of  his  age,  espe- 
cially archery, — a  fact  which  gives  evi- 
dence of  his  appreciation  of  the  physical 
element  in  education. 

But  his  great  contribution  to  Chinese 
education  consisted  not  so  much  in  his 
making  extensive  use  of  the  so-called 
*'Six  Liberal  Arts"  as  in  his  editing  and 
collating  what  later  came  to  be  known 
as  the  "Five  Classics.'*  To  this  number 
eight  more  were  added  by  his  followers, 
making  in  all  thirteen  classics.  These 
classics  formed  the  bulk  of  the  content 
of  Chinese  education  in  subsequent  times. 
As  we  have  already  seen,  there  is  very 
little  of  the  intellectual  or  literary  ele- 
ment in  the  ''Six  Liberal  Arts.''  The 
deficiency  was  supplied  by  the  addition 
of  these  classics. 

We  will  now  turn  to  consider  some  of 
his  teachings  relating  to  education  that 
have  significance  for  all  time.  His  is  an 
essentially  moral  conception  of  educa- 
tion.    The  purpose  of  education  is  to 


22  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

develop  oneself  into  a  man  of  virtue  and 
culture.  ''A  gem  unwrought  serves  no 
useful  end,  so  men  untaught  will  never 
know  what  right  conduct  is.'*  In  the 
' '  Great  Doctrine '  *  he  says :  ' '  It  matters 
not  what  our  position  in  life  may  be — it 
is  alike  the  duty  of  all  to  regard  self- 
cultivation  as  the  root.  But  if  the  root 
be  disordered  how  can  we  possibly  expect 
the  branches  to  flourish,  or  that  he,  who 
neglects  that  which  is  of  primary  impor- 
tance, will  give  due  weight  to  secondary 
matters  which  may  proceed  from  it?'* 
This  self-development,  however,  does 
not  prevent  one  from  helping  to  develop 
others.  *'The  man,'*  he  says,  ''who 
practices  the  principle  of  love,  wishing 
to  establish  himself,  seeks  also  to  estab- 
lish others;  wishing  to  develop  himself, 
he  seeks  to  develop  others."^  Thus 
the  individual  and  the  social  factors  are 
provided  for. 

In  his  conception  of  education  he  seeks 

1  Giles,  H.  A.     Confucmn  Analects, 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  23 

to  recognize  the  importance  of  studying 
natural  phenomena.  ''Thus  we  have 
an  example  of  the  order  in  which  our 
studies  ought  to  be  arranged, — first, 
deep  investigation  into  the  nature  of  all 
things,  giving  us  knowledge;  knowledge, 
giving  rise  to  fixed  principles;  fixed  prin- 
ciples, to  virtuous  action/'* 

It  might  prove  of  interest  to  the  reader 
to  note  some  of  the  aphorisms  of  Con- 
fucius concerning  instruction  and  study 
in  general.  That  he  grasped  the  signifi- 
cance of  reasoning  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil  in  the  learning  process  is  shown  in 
the  statement  that  "when  a  man  has 
been  helped  round  one  comer  of  a  square 
(meaning  here  subject),  and  cannot  man- 
age by  himself  to  get  round  the  other 
three,  he  is  unworthy  of  further  assist- 
ance.*' Concerning  study  he  addressed 
his  students  thus:  ''Study  as  if  you 
could  never  reach  the  point  you  seek  to 
attain,   and  hold  on   to   all   you  have 

1  Giles,  H.  A.     Chinese  Four  Books, 


24  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

learned  as  if  you  feared  to  lose  it/*  On 
self-cultivation  he  had  this  to  say, 
namely,  that  "The  cultivator  of  the  soil 
may  have  his  fill  of  good  things,  but  the 
cultivator  of  the  mind  will  enjoy  a  con- 
tinual feast/ '^ 

So  much  for  the  educational  theory  of 
Confucius.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  a  con- 
sideration of  the  conception  of  education 
of  Mencius,  the  most  important  repre- 
sentative of  the  Confucian  school,  and 
a  contemporary  of  Plato  and  Aristotle. 

Educational  Theory  of  Mencius 

(372-289   B.C.) 

Mencius'  conception  of  the  purpose 
of  education  is  much  the  same  as  that  of 
Confucius.  Emphasis  is  laid  upon  the 
moral  element.  ''There  is  a  way  with 
men:  enough  to  eat,  warm  clothing,  com- 
fortable residences,  without  education, 
make  them  like  beasts.  "^     Education  is 

1  Giles,  H.  A.     Chinese  Four  Books. 
'  Giles,  H.  A.     The  Work  of  Mencius. 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  25 

not  a  suppression  but  a  drawing-out. 
*'He  who  seeks  to  subjugate  men  by- 
goodness  will  never  succeed  in  subju- 
gating them.  He  who  educates  them  by 
goodness  will  bring  the  whole  realm 
into  subjection.'*  It  is  through  moral 
suasion  that  a  love  for  and  joy  in  the 
good  is  aroused.  Personal  example  is 
regarded  by  him  as  an  important  factor 
in  education.  The  personal  example  of 
those  in  authority  is  a  most  impressive 
teaching  for  the  people,  who  follow  it  as 
children  like  to  imitate  what  they  see  in 
adults.  It  is  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
life  of  the  state  that  propriety  and  edu- 
cation are  of  special  importance.  "The 
misfortune  of  a  state  is  not  that  its 
walls  and  fortifications  are  incomplete, 
and  its  armies  and  armor  are  not  abun- 
dantly forthcoming;  the  injury  of  a  state 
is  not  that  its  fields  are  not  increased 
and  its  possessions  are  not  accimiulating. 
If  the  upper  classes  have  no  propriety 
and  the  lower  no  education, — the  final 


26  CHINESE   EDUCATION 

catastrophe  is  not  far  off."^  Here  we 
have  a  distinctly  moral  conception  of 
education.  It  is  moral,  however,  not  in 
the  narrow  sense  of  the  cultivation  of 
one's  own  virtue  only,  but  in  the  broader 
sense  that  education  promotes  the  na- 
tional life  and  social  harmony  through 
the  development  of  the  individual.  All 
scholars  were  expected  to  fulfill  social 
obligations. 

The  method  of  education  which  Men- 
cius  suggests  is  fivefold.  "The  moral 
man,"  he  says,  ''teaches  in  five  ways, 
(i)  There  are  some  he  influences,  like  a 
timely  rain;  (2)  with  some  he  perfects 
their  virtue;  (3)  with  some  he  brings 
out  their  talents;  (4)  of  some  he  answers 
the  questions;  (5)  some  he  teaches  pri- 
vately. These  are  the  five  methods 
which  the  moral  man  uses  in  teaching.'' ^ 
Every  teacher  with  a  moral  purpose  will 
influence  his  pupils  in  various  ways,  each 

1  Giles,  H.  A.     The  Work  of  Mencius. 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  27 

according  to  his  individuality.  Of  these 
five  classes  of  students,  the  first,  thor- 
oughly awake  to  instruction,  receive  it 
eagerly  and  joyously;  the  second  have 
more  aptitude  for  the  ethical,  and  yield 
themselves  to  right  guidance;  the  third 
have  a  special  inclination  for  this  or  that 
theoretical  or  practical  department,  and 
press  on  in  that  direction ;  the  fourth  are 
intellectual,  critical  natures,  who  require 
answers  to  their  questions,  lest,  through 
suppressed  doubts,  they  should  end  in 
uncertainty;  the  fifth  are  those  who 
specially  attach  themselves  to  the  mas- 
ter and  allow  themselves  to  be  urged  on 
by  him. 

Instruction  gives  ideas,  but  not  the 
ability  to  carry  them  out.  ^'The  joiner 
and  wheelwright  can  give  a  man  the 
compass  and  square  but  cannot  make 
him  skillful  with  them."  ^  Thus  in  teach- 
ing there  must  be  a  correspondence 
between  the  ability  of  the  teacher  and 

1  Giles,  H.  A.     The  Work  of  Mencius. 


28  CHINESE   EDUCATION 

the  willingness  and  ability  of  the  scholar 
in  order  to  reach  the  highest  result. 

About  the  time  of  Mencius  there  had 
arisen  various  schools  of  Philosophy, 
thirteen  in  all,  contending  with  each  other 
for  supremacy.  Upon  the  accession  of 
theTsin  Dynasty  (231-201  B.C.),  through 
lack  of  successors  they  gradually  disap- 
peared. A  memorable  act  during  this 
period  was  the  burning  of  all  the  ancient 
books,  including  those  of  Confucius,  by 
order  of  Emperor  Shi  Hwang  Ti.  He 
also  caused  many  of  the  scholars,  four 
hundred  and  sixty,  it  is  said,  to  be  buried 
alive.  The  system  of  education  of  the 
preceding  period  came  at  this  time  to 
an  end,  and  with  the  accession  of  the 
Han  Dynasty  (201  B.C.)  we  have  a  new 
system  coming  into  existence,  namely, 
the  Appointment  System. 


IV 

THE  APPOINTMENT  SYvSTEM 

TylTHEN  the  Han  Dynasty  arose,  an 
official  presented  a  memorial  to  the 
first  Emperor  Kao-Ti  requesting  that  the 
old  system  of  education  be  restored.  To 
which  the  emperor  replied.  *'I  have  no 
need  for  learning.  I  got  the  empire  on 
horseback."^  But  the  oflficial  retorted, 
*' Could  you  control  the  empire  on  horse- 
back?'' The  emperor  was  thus  brought 
to  realize  the  importance  of  education, 
and  ordered  a  search  to  be  made  for  old 
manuscripts.  Accordingly,  a  great  zeal 
was  displayed  on  the  part  of  the  scholars 
in  searching  for  the  lost  writings — a 
situation  which  finds  a  modem  parallel 
in  the  archaeological  research  and  not 
unlike  the  zeal  manifested  in  the  Renais- 
sance period  in  European  history.  The 
retentive    brains    of   old    scholars    were 

1  Williams,  S.  W.     Middle  Kingdom,  1883. 
29 


30  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

ransacked  for  portions  of  the  classics 
which  they  might  have  committed  to 
memory.  Old  walls  were  razed  to  see  if 
old  books  were  concealed  therein.  Many 
works  were  thus  recovered,  though  some 
of  them  were  in  a  mutilated  condition. 
Following  the  recovery  of  the  old  writ- 
ings, there  came,  as  might  be  expected, 
a  group  of  commentators  whose  work 
it  was  to  edit  and  comment  upon  the 
newly  recovered  works.  This  task  occu- 
pied the  attention  of  the  scholar  class 
for  nearly  two  centuries.  Evidently  the 
encouragement  given  to  this  kind  of 
work  by  the  emperors  put  a  premium 
upon  forgery.  This  being  a  question  of 
higher  criticism,  we  shall  be  excused  from 
discussing  it  in  this  paper. 

Notwithstanding  the  zeal  manifested 
in  the  attempt  to  recover  old  classics,  the 
age  of  national  training  had  passed 
beyond  return.  The  system  of  common 
schools  maintained  by  the  state  was 
gone,    and    displaced    by    such    private 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  31 

schools  as  private  individuals  thought 
it  profitable  to  establish.  In  place  of 
education  for  all  we  have  a  few  colleges 
in  the  capital  for  mature  scholars. 

The  new  system  that  came  into  being 
is  known  as  the  Appointment  System, 
so  called  from  the  fact  that  officials 
below  the  rank  of  the  prefect  were  first 
appointed  by  provincial  authorities,  the 
appointments  being  sent  to  the  emperor 
for  his  approval.  This  system,  as  the 
reader  will  observe,  was  a  complete 
reversal  of  the  preceding  one,  under 
which  officials  were  selected  from  schools. 
And  it  was  this  fact  which  accounted  for 
the  disappearance  of  public  education, 
since  there  was  no  great  need  for  it. 

In  the  reign  of  Wu  Ti  (139-54  B.C.),  the 
originator  of  this  system,  an  edict  was 
issued  instructing  the  civil  authorities  in 
different  parts  of  the  empire  to  report  to 
the  emperor  the  names  of  scholars  who  were 
qualified  to  study  at  the  great  colleges  in 
the  capital  as  a  preparation  for  civil  life. 


32  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

Thus  education  was  made  to  prepare 
men  not  for  practical,  everyday  life  but 
for  the  narrow  official  career.  This 
ideal,  which  finds  no  parallel  in  the  his- 
tory of  education,  dominated  the  Chinese 
mind  until  but  a  few  years  ago.  Indus- 
trial pursuits  came  to  be  looked  upon 
with  disdain,  as  unworthy  of  a  scholar. 
The  highest  ideal  that  parents  could  hold 
up  to  their  sons  was  official  life.  The 
result  was  a  literary  aristocracy. 

The  content  of  education  was  limited 
to  old  classics.  Not  the  semblance  of 
liberal  education  was  retained.  It  was 
in  the  same  reign  that  Confucianism 
was  made  the  state  philosophy,  and  the 
other  systems  of  thought  that  originated 
during  the  preceding  dynasty  were  ex- 
cluded. This  is  a  significant  fact  from 
the  point  of  view  of  its  bearing  upon  the 
future  development  of  Chinese  education. 
For  from  this  time  on  Confucianism  was 
made  the  basis  of  Chinese  education,  that 
is,  the  educational  content  was  confined 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  33 

to  the  five  classics.  The  Confucian  liter- 
ature would  be  of  some  practical  use  if 
its  content  were  emphasized  as  against 
its  mere  form.  Since  the  latter  was 
stressed,  Confucianism  in  Chinese  edu- 
cation is  similar  to  ''Ciceronianism*'  in 
the  history  of  European  education. 

However,  in  justice  to  this  system  of 
training  it  should  be  said  that  its  most 
distinguishing  feature  is  the  emphasis 
laid  on  moral  character.  Oftentimes  it 
was  those  noted  for  such  virtues  as  filial 
piety,  integrity,  and  the  like,  rather  than 
those  merely  possessing  good  scholar- 
ship, that  were  reconamended  to  study 
in  the  great  colleges.  A  premium  was 
thus  put  on  character  as  against  mere 
scholarship. 

This  system  prevailed  until  the  seventh 
century,  when  it  was  displaced  by  the 
system  of  Competitive  Examination — a 
topic  to  which  we  shall  direct  out  atten- 
tion in  the  next  section. 


THE  EXAMINATION  SYSTEM 

nPHIS  system  was  set  in  operation 
by  Emperor  Tai  Chung  of  the  Tang 
Dynasty  in  631  a.d.  So  much  has  been 
written  by  students  of  Chinese  literature 
concerning  its  nature  that  this  paper 
shall  be  confined  only  to  the  salient 
points,  and  then  pass  to  its  evaluation 
in  order  to  show  its  significance  for,  and 
bearing  upon,  present-day  educational 
problems. 

Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
complexity  of  its  machinery,  this  system 
stood  as  a  monument  to  the  ingenuity  of 
its  founder.  Its  ramifications  extend  to 
every  nook  and  comer  of  the  country. 
In  each  district  there  were  two  resident 
examiners,  with  the  title  of  professor, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  keep  a  record  of  all 
competing  students,  and  to  exercise  them 
from  time  to  time  in  order  to  stimulate 

34 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  35 

their  efforts  and  keep  them  ready  for  the 
higher  examinations  in  which  degrees 
were  conferred.  In  each  province  there 
was  one  chancellor  or  superintendent  of 
instruction,  who  held  office  for  three 
years,  and  was  required  to  visit  every 
district  and  hold  the  customary  exami- 
nations within  that  time,  conferring 
the  first  degree — Siu-Tsai,  or  ''Budding 
Talent" — on  one  per  cent  of  the  candi- 
dates. The  trial  for  the  second  degree — 
Chu-yin,  or  ''Deserving  of  Promotion'' 

—  was  held  triennially  in  the  capital  of 
each  province  by  special  examiners 
deputed  from  the  capital,  generally  mem- 
bers of  the  Hanlin  Academy.  It  con- 
sisted of  three  sessions  of  three  days  each, 
making  nine  days  of  continuous  exertion 

—  a  strain  to  the  mental  and  physical 
powers  to  which  the  aged  and  infirm 
frequently  succtimbed.  Again  one  per 
cent  were  decorated.  The  examination 
for  the  third  degree — Tsin-Shi,  or  "Fit 
for  Office" — was  held  within  the  palace 


36  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

and  in  the  presence  of  the  emperor.  A 
score  of  the  best  of  the  successful  candi- 
dates were  admitted  to  membership  in 
the  HanUn  Academy,  two  or  three  score 
were  attached  to  it  as  pupils  or  proba- 
tioners, and  the  rest  were  drafted  off  to 
official  posts  in  the  capital  or  in  the 
provinces. 

Having  thus  completed  our  survey  of 
this  institution,  we  shall  now  proceed  to 
evaluate  it,  and  try  to  bring  out  its  points 
of  strength  and  weakness. 

The  system,  while  responsible  for  many 
of  the  shortcomings  of  Chinese  educa- 
tion, possessed  several  features  that  were 
worthy  of  commendation.  In  the  first 
place,  the  whole  system  was  based  on  the 
principle  that  education  was  primarily 
a  discipline,  the  so-called  "dogma  of 
formal  discipline.''  Students  of  the  his- 
tory of  education  will  find  here  a  close 
analogy  to  the  disciplinary  conception  of 
education  as  first  explicitly  formulated 
by  Locke.     It  is  interesting  to  note  that 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  37 

there  is  to-day  in  the  pedagogic  world  a 
reaction  against  the  conception  of  edu- 
cation as  interest,  and  an  effort  to  secure 
a  harmonization  of  interest  with  effort 
in  education.  The  doctrine  of  interest 
turned  loose  upon  the  world  since  the 
time  of  Herbart  was  responsible  for  what 
is  known  as  "soft  pedagogy/' — that 
namby-pamby  sort  of  education  so  con- 
spicuous by  its  presence  in  many  of  the 
modem  schools.  The  opportunities  af- 
forded by  the  system  under  considera- 
tion for  developing  effort,  the  ability  to 
tackle  difficulties  through  the  rigid  lin- 
guistic training,  have  therefore  a  meaning 
for  the  present-day  educational  problems. 
Another  commendable  feature  of  this 
system  was  its  democratic  character. 
The  examinations  were  open  to  all  classes 
of  people.  Any  man,  in  whatever  sta- 
tion of  life  he  might  be  bom,  might  aspire 
to  the  highest  office  in  the  government, 
excepting,  of  course,  that  of  the  emperor. 
This  accounts  for  the  absence  in  China  of 


38  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

any  bureaucracy  that  approximates  to 
that  in  England  or  Japan,  and  for  the 
fact  that  so  many  of  the  high  officials 
rose  from  htimble  walks  of  life.  In  this 
respect,  therefore,  it  was  akin  to  the 
modem  ideal  of  equal  opportunity  in 
education.  Every  student  of  educational 
affairs  realizes  how  far  we  are  yet  from 
that  goal.  The  Gymnasium  of  Germany 
and  the  Lycee  of  France  are  class  schools. 
The  lack  of  equal  opportunity  for  all  in 
education  gives  rise  to  the  cry  for  the 
Einheitschule — one  school  for  all — in 
the  former  country. 

Finally,  this  system  proved  to  be  an 
effectual  means  of  securing  the  tran- 
quillity of  the  public.  The  safety  valve 
of  society,  it  provided  a  vent  for  that 
ambition  and  energy  which  would  other- 
wise burst  forth  in  civil  strife  and  bloody 
revolution. 

Having  seen  the  lights  of  this  picture, 
let  us  now  turn  to  its  shades.  The 
greatest  evil  of  this  system  was  that  it 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  59 

provided  no  room  for  individual  varia- 
tion. It  helped  to  create  types  rather 
than  individuals.  In  the  essays  pre- 
sented by  candidates  for  degrees,  a  cast- 
iron,  prescribed  form  is  observed.  Mere 
rhetorical  effect  was  aimed  at.  If  edu- 
cation is  a  drawing-out  process,  a  means 
of  developing  originality  of  thought, 
inventiveness,  and  adaptability,  the  sys- 
tem under  consideration  is  as  far  from 
realizing  the  true  educational  ideal  as 
the  South  Pole  is  from  the  North.  One 
might  call  it  a  rigid,  narrow  scheme  of 
scholasticism.  The  blind  deference  to 
authority  makes  any  striking  out  on  new 
paths  a  sin.  All  knowledge  is  stored  up 
in  the  repository  of  the  past;  there  is  no 
terra  incognita.  No  wonder  that  Chinese 
thought  furnishes  a  most  striking  case 
of  arrested  development.  But  our  pur- 
pose is  not  so  much  to  condemn  it  as  to 
take  to  heart  the  solemn  lesson  it  teaches. 
It  is  commonly  admitted  that  in  certain 
countries — as,    for    example,    France — 


40  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

the  conception  of  education  as  develop- 
ment or  self-realization  is  as  yet  far  from 
realized.  Another  serious  defect  of  the 
Examination  System  was  its  remoteness 
from  life.  It  is  true  that  it  did  succeed 
in  creating  for  China  a  number  of  men 
endowed  with  good  sense,  ripeness  of 
judgment,  and  ability  to  cope  with  vari- 
ous situations  in  life.  But  this  is  true 
only  of  the  very  few  successful  candi- 
dates; the  unsuccessful  usually  form  an 
educational  proletariat — a  class  of  intel- 
lectual paupers.  Once  a  man  decides  upon 
the  literary  career,  all  other  careers  are 
closed  to  him.  He  knows  nothing  about 
real  life  beyond  the  ability  to  versify,  or 
to  write  up  an  elaborately  embellished  es- 
say. The  absence  of ' '  real '  *  studies  makes 
him  a  stranger  to  the  varied  world  in 
which  he  lives.  The  scholars  are  usually 
spoken  of,  by  way  of  ridicule,  as  lacking 
in  the  knowledge  of  the  distinction  be- 
tween common  natural  objects  as,  for 
instance,  that  between  rice  and  wheat. 
The    consideration    of    these    defects 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  41 

reminds  us  of  the  fact  that  education 
must  be  brought  close  to  life — a  fact 
which  forms  an  important  topic  for  dis- 
cussion in  the  educational  world  to-day. 
One  might  mention  only  the  agitation 
for  vocational  training  and  vocational 
guidance,  and  the  stress  laid  on  content 
studies,  as  opposed  to  mere  formal 
studies,  as  striking  examples  or  expres- 
sions of  the  universal  protest  against 
divorcing  education  from  life.  The  mod- 
em tendency  is  to  socialize  education, 
that  is,  to  conceive  of  education  as  a 
preparation  for  the  activities  of  life 
rather  than  as  a  mere  liixury  for  a  few 
literary  aristocrats. 

Thus  far  we  have  been  considering 
what  may  be  called  old  Chinese  educa- 
tion. Through  contact  with  western 
nations  and  the  repeated  humiliations 
China  suffered,  she  was  brought  to 
realize  that  a  radical  change  in  her  edu- 
cational system  was  necessary  for  her 
self-preservation.  This  fact  accounts  for 
the  rise  of  the  new  education  in  China. 


VI 

NEW  CHINESE  EDUCATION  i 

T^HE  first  modem  school  was  estab- 
lished in  China  in  1862,  two  years 
after  the  treaty  of  Tientsin,  with  the 
appellation  Tung  Wen  Kuan.  Since 
then  there  has  come  a  great  zeal  or  pas- 
sion for  the  ''new  learning/'  People 
became  intoxicated  with  it,  as  with  new 
wine.  Schools  teaching  western  learning 
sprang  up  like  mushrooms.  There  was 
such  a  fascination  about  the  whole  move- 
ment that  the  best  parallel  to  it  in  Eu- 
ropean history  would  probably  be  the 
passion  for  Greek  and  Latin  li*terature  in 
the  period  of  the  Renaissance.  In  place 
of  the  old  Board  of  Rites,  or  Li  Boo,  there 
has  come  the  Board  of  Education.  The 
Chinese    Educational    Mission    in    the 


iThis  section  is  based  on  the  monograph,  "The  Edu- 
cational System  of  China  recently  constructed,"  by 
H.  E.  King,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  BulletiUf 
igii.  No.  15. 

42 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  43 

United  States  01  America  was  established 
in  1872,  and  has  continued  to  be  active. 
The  movement,  however,  was  checked 
for  a  short  time  by  the  coup  d'etat  of  1898. 
But  after  the  Boxer  trouble  in  1900  it 
restimed  its  usual  vigor,  and  has  ever 
since  gone  on  with  ever  increasing 
momentum.  In  1905  the  old  system  of 
competitive  examinations  was  abolished 
with  one  stroke  of  the  ''vermilion  pencil " 
— a  memorable  event  in  the  educational 
history  of  China.  With  it  there  came 
a  complete  system  of  modern  education, 
organized  on  modern  lines. 

The  subject  of  the  new  educational 
system  will  be  best  treated  by  considering 
its  various  parts  separately.  The  part 
that  will  first  occupy  our  attention  is  the 
primary  school  system. 

I.  Primary  Education 

The  elementary  schools  are  divided  into 
two  grades,  the  lower  primary  and  the 
higher  primary,  as  in  France,  Germany, 


44  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

and  England.  Sometimes  the  two  are 
combined  in  one  school,  called  a  higher- 
lower  primary. 

There  has  not  been  coeducation  in 
China,  as  in  occidental  countries.  This 
does  not  imply,  however,  that  to  the 
girls  was  not  given  the  same  educational 
opportunity  as  to  the  boys.  The  differ- 
ence is  only  one  of  form  rather  than  of 
spirit,  that  is,  they  are  educated  in  dif- 
ferent schools,  while  the  covu-se  of  study 
is  identical  in  both  cases. 

Lower  primary  schools,  having  a  course 
of  five  years,  are  open  to  boys  six  years 
old.  These  schools  are  classified  as 
government,  public,  and  private  schools. 
The  government  proposed  to  establish 
in  each  Hsien^  at  least  two  of  these  so- 
called  government  lower  primary  schools, 
and  one  such  school  in  each  town.  The 
funds  for  these  government  schools  are 
to  be  supplied  by  the  local  magistrate. 
The  public  lower  primary  schools  are 

I  Hsien  corresponds  to  the  township  of  America. 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  45 

such  as  have  been  estabUshed  and  organ- 
ized according  to  the  regulations  of  the 
Ministry  of  Education  for  lower  primary 
schools,  and  are  being  supported  by  con- 
tributions that  formerly  were  used  for 
other  purposes,  such  as  theatricals.  These 
contributions  may  be  turned  into  a  per- 
manent endowment.  Any  private  school 
supported  by  any  individual,  if  it  has  an 
enrollment  of  over  thirty  boys  and  con- 
forms to  the  regulations  made  by  the 
government,  may  be  placed  vinder  gov- 
ernment control, — in  this  case,  under 
the  control  and  supervision  of  the  local 
magistrate.  All  schools  are  to  be  estab- 
lished by  sanction  of  the  local  magistrate, 
and  without  his  sanction  no  school  is  to 
be  closed.  The  magistrate  is  expected 
to  do  all  in  his  power  to  encourage  such 
schools.  Should  he  be  negligent  in  these 
duties,  and  should  it  be  reported  to  the 
central  government,  he  may  be  degraded 
or  cashiered.  If,  on  the  contrary,  he  is 
faithful,    and    shows    discretion    in    the 


46  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

choice  of  assistants  to  help  him  in 
securing  the  estabHshment  of  schools,  he 
is  usually  promoted. 

The  program  of  study  extends  through 
five  years,  and  embraces  eight  subjects, 
as  given  below: 

Subjects  Number  of  hours 

Ethics 2 

Chinese  classics 12 

Chinese  literature 4 

Mathematics 6 

History i 

Science I 

Geography I 

Drill 3 

Total 30 

It  was  discovered  that  this  program 
failed  to  yield  the  desired  results.  Among 
the  complaints  offered  against  such  a 
course  of  study  were  these,  that  it  con- 
tained too  many  subjects  and  that  the 
nimiber  of  hours  of  study  was  too 
limited.  Accordingly  the  Ministry  of 
Education  sent  in  a  memorial  on  May  15, 
1909,  asking  that  the  program  of  study 
be  altered  so  as  to  make  it  adapted  to 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  47 

the  needs  of  the  students.  The  request 
was  granted  on  the  same  day.  An  edict 
was  issued  to  the  effect  that  each  school 
should  have  at  least  thirty  pupils,  and 
that  there  should  be  offered  two  courses 
of  study,  one  a  complete  course  and  the 
other  a  much  easier  course.  The  com- 
plete course  remains  the  same  as  the  old. 
In  the  easy  course,  history,  geography, 
and  natural  science  are  not  to  be  studied 
as  subjects,  and  in  their  place  music 
is  added  and  drawing  is  made  optional. 
In  case  a  pupil  who  has  completed  a  short 
course  wishes  to  enter  the  higher  primary 
school  he  must  make  up  all  the  work 
required  in  the  complete  course  before 
he  enters.  The  number  of  years  may 
also  be  shortened  from  five  to  three 
in  the  easy  course.  After  completing 
the  lower  primary  course  of  study,  stu- 
dents may  enter  the  higher  primary. 
The  course  is  limited  to  four  years  of 
thirty-six-hour  recitations  per  week. 
These  schools  may  be  established  in  any 


48  CHINESE   EDUCATION 

city,  town,  or  village.  In  every  Hsien 
there  must  be  one  government  higher 
primary  school.  The  regulations  that 
govern  the  establishment  of  private 
higher  primary  schools  are  the  same  as 
those  that  control  the  lower  primary. 
The  nine  subjects  taught  during  the  four 
years  embrace  the  following: 

Subjects  Hours 

Morals 2 

Chinese  literature 8 

Chinese  classics 12 

Mathematics 3 

Science 2 

Chinese  history 2 

Geography 2 

Drawing 2 

Physical  drill 3 

Total 36 

It  will  be  seen  that  here,  as  in  the  pri- 
mary, the  humanistic  or  classical  element 
predominated — a  relic  of  the  old  system 
of  education.  The  greater  portion  of 
the  time,  twenty  out  of  thirty-six  hours, 
is  given  to  the  study  of  Chinese  classics 
and  literattire.  That  this  arrangement  of 
subjects  of  instruction  is  unsatisfactory 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  49 

is  obvious  enough.  They  are  not  corre- 
lated in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  many- 
sidedness. 

As  has  been  said,  these  schools,  both 
lower  and  higher  primary,  are  placed 
under  the  control  of  the  local  magistrate. 
The  regulations  for  schools  recommend 
that  the  principal  of  primary  schools 
should  be  a  normal  graduate,  but, 
knowing  that  there  is  not  a  sufficient 
nimiber  of  such  graduates  to  man  the 
schools,  permit  any  one  reputed  to  be  a 
good  manager  to  be  employed  tempora- 
rily as  principal.  The  principal  and  his 
teachers  are  not  allowed  to  leave  their 
posts,  nor  to  have  any  other  occupation 
outside  of  the  school,  except  by  permis- 
sion of  the  magistrate.  Reports  of  the 
primary  schools  are  to  be  made  at 
the  end  of  the  second  term,  stating  the 
number  of  teachers,  assistants,  students, 
and  graduates,  and  given  to  the  local 
magistrate,  who  will  forward  them  to 
the  viceroy  or  governor  of  the  province, 


so  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

and  he  in  turn  will  forward  them  to  the 
Ministry  of  Education. 

Here  we  have  a  sort  of  educational 
hierarchy — a  system  based  evidently  on 
the  centralized  systems  of  Germany  and 
France  rather  than  upon  the  decentral- 
ized system  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  All  the  textbooks  used  in 
the  primary  schools  must  be  approved 
by  the  Ministry  of  Education.  The 
aim  here,  as  in  Germany  and  France,  is 
to  sectu*e  absolute  uniformity  in  school 
curricula.  The  higher  primary  school 
finds  its  prototype  in  France  and  Ger- 
many. But  while  in  these  countries  the 
higher  primary  school  is  intended  as  a 
class  school, — that  is,  for  those  who 
are  unable  to  receive  higher  education, 
chiefly  because  of  financial  reasons,  and 
have  to  engage  in  commercial  and  mer- 
cantile pursuits  very  early  in  life, — in 
China  it  forms  a  necessary  connecting 
link  between  primary  and  secondary 
education. 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  51 

The  school  buildings  are  largely  con- 
verted from  public  buildings,  private 
temples,  and  nunneries.  It  is  required 
that  these  buildings  are  to  consist  of 
one  story  and  contain  recitation  rooms 
and  a  large  public  room  where  all  the 
pupils  may  assemble  for  public  services. 
Dormitories  are  not  at  first  to  be  required, 
but  later  on  they  may  be  built  to  accom- 
modate boys  from  country  villages  some 
distance  from  the  school.  All  schools 
are  to  provide  drill  grounds,  and  the 
compound  is  to  be  sufficiently  large  to 
accommodate  all  buildings  without 
crowding. 

While  the  establishment  of  the  primary 
schools  has  not  been  as  rapid  as  the 
government  had  desired,  what  has  al- 
ready been  accomplished  within  this 
decade  justifies  the  hope  that  the  time 
is  not  far  distant  when  China  will  have 
as  large  a  per  cent  of  her  children  attend- 
ing schools  as  any  of  the  western  nations 
has  now. 


52  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

The  following  table ^  gives  (i)  the  at- 
tendance in  the  lower  primary  schools  in 
Chili  Province  for  the  years  1902-3  to 
1907-8,  and  (2)  the  ratio  or  per  cent  of 
attendance  to  the  number  of  children  of 
school  age. 

Per  cent  of  attendance 
Year  Attendance  of  children 

of  school  age 

1902-3 1,000 0.0173 

1903-4 6,000 o.  1043 

1904-5 36,344 0632 

1905-6 68,000 1 .  1826 

1906-7 109,467 1 .9037 

1907-8 148,399 2.5908 

The  table  is  interesting  as  showing 
the  progress  that  China  is  making  in 
the  direction  of  general  education.  In 
the  year  1907-8  there  were  in  Chili 
Province  8,675  lower  primary  schools, 
with  an  attendance  of  148,399.  Grad- 
uates for  the  year  numbered  537;  the 
nimiber  of  teachers,  8,969,  with  an  average 
of  some  sixteen  pupils  for  each  teacher. 
The  cost  of  educating  a  pupil  during 
the  year  was  about  $1.88.  For  the  higher 
primary  schools  of  that   year  we  find 

iH.  E.  King,  p.  56. 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  53 

the  following:  total  number  of  schools, 
220;  total  number  of  students,  10,599; 
number  of  graduates,  521;  average 
number  of  pupils  per  teacher,  20.4; 
cost  per  pupil  for  the  year,  $28.23. 
The  amount  of  funds  raised  that  year 
for  higher  primary  schools  was  $299,320. 
Graduates  of  higher  primary  schools 
are  recommended  for  admission  to  nor- 
mal schools  and  middle  technical  schools, 
as  well  as  to  the  middle  or  secondary 
schools  proper. 

2.  Middle  Schools 

The  government  proposes  to  have  a 
middle  school  established  in  each  Fu,* 
but  if  any  Chou  or  Hsien  can  provide 
for  such  a  school,  and  desires  to  do  so, 
it  is  allowable;  but  in  the  beginning  it 
was  thought  wiser  to  establish  these 
schools  only  in  the  Fu  cities.  Each  Fu 
is  responsible  for  financing  its  own 
school.     When     the    finances     of    any 

I  Fu  corresponds  to  the  county  of  America. 


54  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

middle  schools  are  managed  by  the 
magistrate  and  some  of  the  wealthier 
citizens  of  that  Fu,  and  it  conforms  to 
the  regulations  for  the  middle  schools, 
it  is  classed  as  a  public  middle  school. 
Any  school  established  and  supported 
by  individuals  or  by  a  corporation  in 
accordance  with  the  regtilations  of  the 
Minist!ry  of  Education  is  entitled  to 
the  same  recognition,  privileges,  and 
protection  as  are  given  to  the  govern- 
ment institutions  and  is  known  as  a 
private  middle  school.  Public  buildings, 
nunneries,  and  temples  may  be  used  as 
schoolhouses.  Not  only  are  graduates 
of  the  higher  primary  schools  admitted 
to  these  middle  schools,  but  all  others 
who  are  able  to  meet  the  requirements 
for  admission.  Reports  are  required 
from  these  middle  schools  just  as  from 
the  primary  schools. 

The  course  of  study  extends  through 
five  years  and  embraces  the  following 
subjects: 


THE   WESTERN   VIEWPOINT 


55 


Subjects 


First 
Year 


Second 
Year 


Third 
Year 


Fourth 
Year 


Fifth 
Year 


Morals 

Drawing 

Physical  drill 

Chinese  classics 

Mathematics 

Algebra,  geometry  and 

plane  trigonometry.  .  . 

Chinese  and  foreign  history 

Foreign  language 

Chinese  literature 

Geography 

Natural  science 

Botany 

Zo6logy 

Physiology 

Mineralogy 

Geology 

Physical  science 

Physics  ..., 

Chemistry 

Political  science  and  econ- 


omy 


Total 


36 


36 


36 


36 


36 


It  was  soon  discovered  that  the 
curricultim  embraced  too  many  studies 
and  that  on  this  account  the  students 
failed  to  *'make  good/'  The  Ministry 
in  a  memorial  requested  that  the  course 
of  study  might  be  revised  and  that  the 
middle  schools,  following  the  methods 
of  German  schools,   offer  two  courses, 


56  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

one  a  technical  course  and  the  other  a 
literary  course.  The  memorial  was 
granted.  The  students  entering  the 
middle  school  may  choose  either  course. 
In  the  technical  department  the  major 
requirements  are  a  foreign  language, 
mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  and 
biology.  The  minor  subjects  are 
Chinese  classics  and  literature,  history, 
geography,  drawing,  political  science, 
and  political  economy.  In  the  literary- 
department  the  student  must  take  for 
his  major  work  Chinese  classics  and 
literature;  a  foreign  language  (English 
and  Japanese  are  recommended  as  the 
more  important  languages),  history,  and 
geography.  His  minor  subjects  are 
mathematics,  science,  political  science 
and  political  economy,  drawing,  and 
physical  drill.  All  textbooks,  before 
being  used  in  the  schools,  must  have  the 
approval  of  the  Ministry  of  Education. 
The  schools  are  to  be  supplied  with 
suitable  laboratories,  especially  for  the 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  57 

teaching  of  physics  and  chemistry. 
Charts  of  all  kinds  are  to  be  supplied 
for  the  work  in  botany,  zoology,  and 
physiology,  and  also  good  maps  for 
teaching  geography.  Dormitories  and 
dining  rooms,  also  reading  rooms,  are  to 
be  provided  for  the  students  in  the  com- 
pound. An  athletic  ground  is  provided 
for  the  pupils  where  they  have  military 
drill  and  various  athletic  sports.  The  in- 
structors of  the  middle  schools  are  to  be 
graduates  of  the  Chinese  normal  colleges 
or  of  normal  colleges  in  foreign  countries. 
By  January,  1908,  there  were  32 
middle  schools  in  Chili  Province,  enrolling 
2,125  pupils,  and  loi  pupils  had  been 
graduated.  There  were  157  teachers  in 
these  schools,  with  an  average  of  13.5 
pupils  per  teacher.  The  examination 
of  students  of  the  middle  schools  for 
promotion  to  the  provincial  college  is 
held  in  the  presence  of  the  viceroy  or 
governor  and  of  the  president  of  the 
Board  of  Education. 


58  chinese  education 

3.   Provincial  Colleges 

In  each  provincial  capital  there  has 
been  established  a  higher  school,  more 
commonly  called  the  provincial  college. 
It  is  organized  on  lines  similar  to  those 
of  the  German  Gymnasium  or  the  French 
Lycee,  In  the  beginning,  owing  to  lack 
of  adequate  preparation  on  the  part  of 
the  students,  a  preparatory  department 
was  usually  established  in  connection 
with  the  college.  To-day,  however,  only 
graduates  of  the  middle  schools  are 
admitted.  The  curriculum  requires  three 
years  of  thirty-six  hours  per  week.  The 
graduates  are  prepared  to  take  work  in 
the  colleges  of  the  university  at  Peking. 
The  national  system  of  education  pro- 
vides only  for  the  establishment  of  one 
college  in  each  province,  and  requires  that 
accommodation  should  be  made  for  at 
least  five  hundred  students,  but  any  col- 
lege may  open  with  two  himdred  students. 
The  finances  of  a  college  must  be  attended 
to  by  the  province  in  which  it  is  situated. 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT 


59 


At  the  end  of  the  second  semester  of  each 
year  reports  of  the  college  must  be  sent 
to  the  provincial  Board  of  Education, 
who  in  turn  make  reports  to  the  Ministry 
of  Education.  The  curricultim  provides 
for  three  courses  of  study.  Course  A 
prepares  students  to  enter  the  imperial 
university  colleges  of  Chinese  classics, 
political  science  and  law,  literature,  and 
commerce;  Course  B  prepares  for  the 
colleges  of  science,  agriculture,  and  en- 
gineering; Course  C  prepares  for  the 
college  of  medicine. 

Course  A 


Subjects 


Ethics .  . 

Chinese  classics 

Chinese  literature 

English  language 

German  or  French 

History 

Geography 

Oratory 

Law 

Political  economy 

Military  science 

Military  drill  and  gym- 
nastics   


Total. 


First  Second 

Year  Year 


I 

3 
36 


I 

3 
36 


Third 
Year 


36 


6o 


CHINESE  EDUCATION 


In  place  of  oratory  in  the  second 
year  a  student  may  elect  mathematics 
or  physics.  Students  wishing  to  study 
law  may  elect  two  hours  of  Latin  in  the 
third  year.  Those  who  wish  to  specialize 
in  Chinese  classics  may  take  mathematics 
in  the  second  year  in  place  of  oratory, 
and  physics  in  the  third  year  in  place 
of  Chinese  literature. 

Course  B 


Subjects 


Ethics 

Chinese  classics 

Chinese  literature 

English  language 

German  or  French 

Mathematics 

Physics 

Chemistry 

Geology  and  mining 

Drawing 

Military  science 

Military  drill  and  gym- 
nastics   


Total, 


First 

Second 

Year 

Year 

I 

I 

2 

2 

3 

2 

8 

7 

8 

7 

5 

4 

. . . 

3 

3 

4 

3 

2 

I 

3 

3 

36 

36 

Third 
Year 


36 


Those  who  wish  to  specialize  in  botany, 
zoology,  or  geology,  in  the  scientific 
college,  or  agriculture,  in  the  third  year 


THE   WESTERN   VIEWPOINT 


6i 


may  drop  mathematics  and  substitute 
four  hours'  work  in  line  with  their 
specialty.  Those  who  wish  to  specialize 
in  architecture,  electrical  engineering, 
naval  construction,  mathematics,  physics, 
or  astronomy,  may  drop  two  hours  in 
chemical  experiments  in  the  third  year 
and  substitute  in  place  thereof  a  three- 
hour  course  in  surveying.  In  the  third 
year  a  two-hour  course  in  Latin  may 
be  elected  by  any  who  wish  to  specialize 
in  zoology,  botany,  geology,  agriculture, 
and  veterinary  science. 

Course  C 


Subjects 


Ethics 

Chinese  classics . . . 
Chinese  literature . 
Military  science . . . 

Military  drill 

Mathematics 

Biology 

German 

English  or  French , 

Physics 

Chemistry 

Latin 


Total 


First 

Second 

Year 

Year 

) 

I 

I 

2 

2 

4 

2 

2 

I 

3 

3 

4 

2 

4 

3 

13 

13 

3 

3 

... 

3 

36 

36 

Third 
Year 


36 


62  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  tables 
that  special  stress  is  laid  on  modem 
language,  so  that  students  may  read 
foreign  books  with  facility.  The  great 
nimiber  of  subjects  covered  gives  the 
curriculum  a ' '  bunched"  character.  What 
can  be  expected  from  such  a  course 
of  study  I  am  going  to  dwell  on  under 
a  separate  heading. 

The  regulations  for  the  colleges  require 
dormitories  with  studies  and  bedrooms 
provided  for  the  students.  Laboratories, 
museimis,  and  libraries  are  also  to  be 
provided.  A  director  stands  at  the  head 
of  the  college.  Below  him  is  a  president, 
who  superintends  the  work  done  by  the 
teachers  and  makes  recommendations  to 
the  directors  concerning  the  ways  and 
means  of  bettering  the  work. 

4.  Universities 

The  educational  code  of  China  provides 
for  an  imperial  university  composed  of 
eight     departments     or      colleges — (i) 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  63 

Chinese  classics;  (2)  law;  (3)  literature; 
(4)  medicine;  (5)  sciences;  (6)  agriculture; 
(7)  engineering;  (8)  commerce — and  a 
graduate  school  to  be  located  at  Peking ; 
also  such  other  universities  as  may  be 
established  later  by  the  provinces,  and 
which  shall  not  be  obliged  to  furnish 
instruction  in  more  than  three  depart- 
ments as  outlined  for  the  imperial  uni- 
versity. Thus  far  there  have  been 
established,  in  addition  to  the  imperial 
university,  the  coping-stone  of  the  whole 
educational  system  at  present,  the 
Tientsin  University  and  the  Shansi 
University. 

The  University  Council  is  composed 
of  the  president,  the  deans  of  all  the 
colleges,  the  professors,  and  assistant 
professors.  The  president  of  the  uni- 
versity convokes  the  University  Council 
and  presides  at  its  meetings.  Faculty 
meetings,  composed  of  all  the  professors 
and  assistant  professors,  must  be  held  in 
each  college.     In  case  of  a  disagreement 


64  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

between  the  president  and  the  University 
Council  in  regard  to  matters  concerning 
higher  education,  the  question  may  be 
referred  for  settlement  to  the  Ministry 
of  Education.  All  courses  offered  in 
the  colleges  cover  three  years'  work, 
except  the  two  courses  in  the  law 
college  and  the  course  for  physicians  in 
the  college  of  medicine,  which  require 
four  years'  work.  The  graduate  school, 
or  rather  the  school  for  independent 
research  and  investigation,  requires  five 
years'  work.  The  graduation  examina- 
tions are  to  be  held  in  the  presence  of 
the  president  of  the  Ministry  of  Edu- 
cation, together  with  a  commissioner 
appointed  by  the  government.  High 
honors  are  bestowed  upon  the  successful 
candidates. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  entire  twenty- 
five-year  course  of  study  outlined  for 
the  national  schools  of  China.  There 
are,  besides  these  schools,  normal, 
technical,   and    miscellaneous  schools— 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  65 

a  topic  which,  for  lack  of  space,  shall 
not  be  considered  in  this  paper. 

5.  General  Remarks  on  the  New 
Education 

The  new  system  of  education  in  China 
is  a  matter  of  but  a  few  years'  standing. 
It  being  still  in  the  infant  stage,  one 
has,  therefore,  to  be  somewhat  indulgent 
in  passing  comments  upon  it.  But 
leaving  out  of  account  the  inevitable 
mistakes,  it  has  not,  in  our  opinion, 
accomplished  as  much  as  it  should  have 
done.  Under  the  Manchu  r6gime  educa- 
tion, that  is,  the  new  education,  was  a 
pure  farce.  There  could  be  no  excuse 
for  the  inefficiency  and  the  rank  rotten- 
ness that  characterized  the  educational 
system. 

Indeed,  one  may  say  that  the  new 
system  of  education  was  not  in  any  way 
different  from  the  old,  except  in  name 
or  form.  Students  were  craving  for 
official  honors  as  were  the  students  under 


66  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

the  old  system.  There  was  no  hint 
on  their  part  of  the  reaHzation  of  the 
great  truth  that  education  is  chiefly 
preparation  for  life — the  whole  life. 
Chinese  classics  form  the  predominating 
element  in  the  curriciilum.  The  policy 
of  the  authorities  seems  to  be  to  preserve 
ancient  values  and  at  the  same  time  to 
check  dangerous  ideas, —  ideas  which, 
if  adopted,  would  subvert  the  social 
order.  That  this  proved  futile  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  the  revolution  came 
on  in  spite  of  these  precautions. 

The  new  education  ought  to  be  made 
more  practical  and  scientific.  But  a 
single  glance  at  it  will  convince  one 
that  the  reverse  is  the  case.  Cramming 
and  stufl&ng  are  the  main  features.  No 
wonder  that  no  nourishment  is  absorbed 
from  intellectual  diet,  since  there  is 
no  mastication  and  digestion.  Educa- 
tion becomes  identified  with  the  mere 
acquisition  of  information.  The  mind 
is  conceived  as  a  tabula  rasa  receiving 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  67 

impressions  from  without,  as  would  a 
sensitive  plate,  perfectly  inactive  and 
passive.  It  is  true  that  this  objection 
is  often  urged  against  French  and  German 
schools,  but  it  applies  in  China  in  an 
infinitely  greater  degree  than  probably 
in  either  of  the  two  former  countries. 
Not  until  a  more  rational  basis  is  applied 
for  school  curricula  can  Chinese  educa- 
tion succeed  in  creating  men  or  women 
with  capacity  for  independent  research 
and  thought. 

As  in  the  intellectual  field,  so  in  the 
realm  of  morals  has  the  new  education 
failed.  It  is  true  that  the  program  of 
study  provides  for  ethical  teaching  all 
the  way  through,  but  it  is  generally  a 
quackery.  Mere  oral  teaching  can  never 
succeed  in  developing  strong  character. 
Character,  as  is  often  said,  is  caught 
but  not  taught.  True  education  is 
possible  only  when  teacher  and  pupil 
enter  into  an  intimate  relation,  thereby 
allowing  the  former  to  come  into  close 


68  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

touch  with  the  inner  life  of  the  latter. 
Of  course  we  cannot  make  religion  the 
corner-stone  of  the  educational  system, 
as  is  done  in  Germany,  but  some  form 
of  religious  and  moral  instruction  must 
be  given;  not  simply  by  word  of  mouth, 
but  also  through  personal  example. 
While  religious  instruction  is  not  given 
in  American  public  schools,  its  deficiency 
is  supplied  in  most  of  the  students* 
families.  The  importance  of  the  fact 
can  hardly  be  overemphasized  that  a 
new  criterion  for  judging  conduct  should 
come  in  China  to  take  the  place  of  the 
old  moral  and  religious  sanctions  which 
are  now  fast  passing  away.  This  is 
one  of  the  greatest  problems  that  con- 
front Chinese  education  to-day. 


VII 

EDUCATIONAL    CHANGES    UNDER    THE 
REPUBLICAN  REGIME 

TTHE  overthrow  of  the  Manchu  Dy- 
nasty  removed  a  great  barrier  in 
the  way  of  the  development  of  educa- 
tion in  China.  The  new  government 
has  taken  up  the  question  of  educational 
reform  in  a  way  which  justifies  one  in 
hoping  that  the  defects  mentioned  above 
will  in  time  be  eliminated.  In  this 
part  of  the  paper  we  shall  briefly  consider 
the  reform  measures  that  have  been 
adopted  by  the  new  government  in  the 
field  of  education. 

The  educational  aim  as  formulated  and 
promulgated  by  the  new  government 
is,  in  respect  to  general  education,  to 
secure  adaptation  to  environment  and 
such  development  of  the  character  of 
the  people  as  will  fit  them  for  citizen- 
ship in   a  democratic  country,  and,  as 

69 


70  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

regards  technical  education,  to  sectire 
such  a  blending  of  knowledge  and  tech- 
nical skill  and  morality  on  the  part 
of  the  students  as  will  enable  them  to 
contribute  toward  national  advancement 
along  various  lines.  The  stress  is  laid 
on  moral  instruction,  supplemented  by 
industrial  and  military  training. 

All  technical  education  shall  be  placed 
under  the  direct  control  of  the  Ministry 
of  Education,  and  all  general  education 
under  the  control  of  local  agencies,  as 
well  as  of  the  Board  of  Education. 
Efforts  shall  be  made  to  encourage  the 
establishment  of  private  institutions. 
The  funds  for  the  technical  education 
shall  be  supplied  by  the  central  govern- 
ment, and  the  property  owned  by  the 
government  in  the  form  of  public  lands 
may  be  used  as  an  endowment  fund. 
But  the  funds  for  general  education 
shall  be  derived  from  local  taxes,  and 
the  local  public  property  may  be  used 
as    endowment.     The    question    of   the 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  71 

unification  of  local  dialects  as  a  basis 
and  means  for  securing  national  unity 
has  also  been  taken  up,  and  some  advance 
has  been  made  in  that  direction.  On 
every  hand  one  can  see  indications  of 
a  real  determination  on  the  part  of  the 
new  government  to  put  the  educational 
system  on  a  sound  basis. 

It  has  been  decided  that,  in  addition 
to  the  university  at  Peking,  there  shall 
be  established  three  more  universities  — 
one  each  in  the  cities  of  Nanking,  Wu- 
Chang,  and  Canton,  thus  making  four 
great  educational  centers.  Only  gradu- 
ates of  provincial  colleges  will  be,  as 
heretofore,  admitted  to  these  universities. 
When  carried  out,  it  will  be  a  great  step 
forward. 

In  addition  to  these  universities  there 
will  soon  be  established  six  higher  normal 
schools  for  men  and  two  for  women. 
This  is  a  clear  indication  that  the  new 
government  is  coming  to  appreciate  the 
fact  that  professional  training  for  teachers 


72  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

underlies  the  success  of  any  educational 
scheme. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  boys  and 
girls  were  educated  in  different  schools 
under  the  old  Manchu  regime.  It  has 
now  been  decided  that  this  system  will 
be  abolished,  and  that  all  lower  and 
higher  primary  schools  shall  be  coeduca- 
tional institutions. 

Moreover,  that  the  new  government 
recognizes  the  importance  of  simplifying 
the  Chinese  language  which  is  now, 
owing  to  its  cumbersome  character,  a 
great  barrier  in  the  way  of  diffusing 
intelligence,  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  an  alphabet  consisting  of  thirty-nine 
letters  has  been  adopted  as  a  basis  for 
carrying  out  this  important  task.  One 
may  hope,  therefore,  that  ere  long  the 
babel  of  tongues  that  now  exists  will 
be  replaced  by  one  uniform  language. 

That  the  new  government  is  going  to 
make  teachers  of  elementary  schools 
civil   servants  is   attested  by  the  fact 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  73 

that  a  pension  system  has  been  intro- 
duced as  an  integral  part  of  the  educa- 
tional system.  This  is  evidently  in  line 
with  the  centralized  system  of  education 
that  China  has  adopted.  In  America 
no  pensions,  as  a  rule,  are  awarded  to 
the  teachers,  while  in  Germany  and 
France  the  teachers,  being  civil  servants, 
are  entitled  to  pensions.  It  has  been 
decided  that  an  elementary  teacher  who 
has  to  retire  on  account  of  overwork, 
deformity,  or  other  cause  after  five 
years'  service  is  entitled  to  a  certain 
amount  of  pension,  determined  and  paid 
by  the  local  community.  The  amount 
is  not  to  exceed  two  fifths  of  the  salary 
he  received  in  the  last  year. 

In  case  of  death  of  the  teacher,  after 
five  years  of  service,  the  widow  is  en- 
titled to  one  fifth  of  the  salary  her 
husband  received  in  the  last  year.  If 
death  takes  place  after  ten  years  of 
service,  the  allowance  may  rise  to  two 
fifths  of  the  salary. 


74  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

There  are  other  changes  of  minor 
importance  that  have  been  proposed, 
and  all  these  come  from  an  earnest 
desire  for  educational  reform.  What 
little  has  been  achieved  holds  out  prom- 
ise that  greater  things  will  yet  come  in 
the  near  future.  The  new  Ministry, 
as  opposed  to  the  old,  becomes,  so  to 
speak,  conscious  and  reflective.  It  is 
no  longer  in  the  somnolent  state,  as 
was  the  old.  It  is  this  fact  that  makes 
one  sanguine  about  the  prospect  of 
Chinese  education. 


w 


VIII 

FINAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

E  HAVE  thus  far  traced  the  general 
development  of  Chinese  education 
up  to  the  present  time.  It  is  now  in  order 
for  us  to  look  forward  and  venture  a 
few  remarks  concerning  elements  that 
are  to  be  desired  in  the  future  educational 
system  of  China. 

The  first  question  on  the  admmistra- 
tive  side  that  immediately  presents  itself 
is,  which  of  the  two  systems  of  education 

—  the  centralized  and  the  decentralized 

—  should  China  adopt?  The  present 
tendency  is,  as  already  indicated,  toward 
centralization.  But  is  this  the  better 
of  the  two?  May  there  not  rather  be 
a  proper  balance  of  both  systems?  To 
answer  this  question  we  have  briefly 
to  consider  the  relative  merits  and  de- 
merits of  both.  In  general  it  may  be 
said  that  centralization  assures  uniformity 

75 


76  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

in  the  school  system  of  the  state,  elim- 
inates school  administration  from  local 
politics,  and  helps  to  bring  a  higher 
grade  of  talent  into  educational  admin- 
istration. All  these  advantages  are 
realized  in  France  and  Germany.  On 
the  other  hand,  decentralization  gives 
opportunity  for  individual  initiative,  per- 
mits instant  adaptation  to  local  needs, 
and,  above  all,  favors  the  participation 
of  all  the  interested  social  factors  in 
the  administration  of  education,  thus 
helping  to  bring  the  school  into  harmony 
with  society.  The  advantages  of  the 
one  system  are  the  disadvantages  of 
the  other,  and  vice  versa.  The  advan- 
tages of  centralization  are  realized  in 
countries  like  France  and  Germany, 
those  of  decentralization  in  America. 
The  fact  that  either  extreme  is  inade- 
quate, and  that  it  is  possible  to  secure 
such  a  blending  of  the  two  that  the 
benefits  of  both  may  be  retained  without 
sacrificing  the  important  advantages  of 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  77 

either,  is  proved  by  the  circumstance 
that  France  and  Germany  are  moving 
toward  decentralization  and  centraliza- 
tion is  making  progress  in  America. 

But  how  is  this  to  be  brought  about? 
The  question  will  be  answered  with 
particular  reference  to  the  conditions 
in  China. 

Education  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  namely,  general  and  technical 
education.  The  aim  of  general  or  national 
education  is  to  make  citizens,  to  bring 
them  en  rapport  with  their  whole  en- 
vironment. ^' Every  school  is  a  machine 
deliberately  contrived  for  the  manu- 
facture of  citizens,'*  says  R.  E.  Hughes.^ 
For  the  realization  of  this  ideal,  no 
definite  rules  can  be  laid  down  as  to 
whether  centralization  or  decentraliza- 
tion is  to  be  adopted.  This  can  be  deter- 
mined only  by  the  national  ideals  and 
the  political  and  social  conditions  of  a 
country.     The  ideals  of  American  govem- 

1  The  Making  of  Citizens,  p.  4. 


78  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

ment  are  in  favor  of  decentralization, 
but  if  it  should  be  transferred  to  Europe 
she  would  probably  have  to  adopt  some- 
thing like  centralization,  yielding  to  the 
pressure  of  circumstances.  To  inculcate 
common  ideals,  to  develop  habits  of 
disciplined  obedience  to  law  and  author- 
ity, calls  for  a  centralized  system  of  edu- 
cation and  can  never  be  accomplished 
where  there  is  lack  of  symmetry  and 
uniformity  in  school  administration.  In 
China  the  general  political  situation,  the 
necessity  for  removing  provincialism  and 
substituting  in  its  place  a  national  con- 
sciousness, the  need  for  a  national  lan- 
guage instead  of  the  present  babel  of 
tongues,  the  importance  of  having  com- 
mon national  ideals,  especially  in  respect 
to  political  problems — all  these  things 
demand  that  general  popular  education 
be  placed  under  direct  supervision  of  the 
Ministry  of  Education.  As  to  the  details 
of  a  centralized  scheme,  we  would  offer 
the  following  suggestions : 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  79 

In  the  first  place,  as  far  as  school 
administration  is  conceived,  it  seems  to 
us  that  the  German  system  should  be 
adopted,  with  such  modifications  as  to 
make  it  suit  the  conditions  in  China.  In 
each  province  there  should  be  a  commis- 
sioner of  education,  appointed  by  the 
Board  of  Education,  who  should  act  at 
the  same  time  as  the  president  or  head 
of  the  provincial  school  board.  His 
duties  should  be  to  act  as  a  sort  of  official 
intermediary  between  the  central  and 
local  authorities  in  Chinese  education,^ 
and  to  have  general  supervision  of  all 
the  schools  in  the  province,  especially 
of  the  higher  grades  of  schools. 

Each  province  is  to  be  divided  into 
prefectures,  2  the  ntimber  of  which  should 
depend  upon  the  size  of  the  province. 
Each  is  to  have  a  school  board  of  at  least 


iThis  is  not  the  case  in  China  to-day  There  the 
provincial  superintendent  cannot  communicate  directly 
with  the  central  authorities,  and  can  only  do  that  through 
the  medium  of  the  provincial  governor. 

^  A  prefecture  corresponds  to  the  county  of  America. 


8o  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

six  officers,  appointed  by  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Education.  One  third  of  the 
members  of  these  boards  are  to  go  out  of 
office  every  three  years  and  another 
one  third  appointed  to  take  their  place, 
so  that  there  will  be  always  some  men 
on  the  staff  who  are  acquainted  with 
the  actual  condition  of  affairs  at  any  time. 
Their  main  duty  will  be  the  supervision 
of  primary  and  middle  schools. 

Further,  each  of  these  prefectures  is  to 
be  subdivided  into  districts.  The  dis- 
trict school  boards  are  to  be  appointed 
in  the  same  way  as  are  those  in  the  pre- 
fecture, and  should  consist  of  three  offi- 
cers. The  district  magistrate  is  to  serve 
as  the  head  of  the  school  board  ex  officio; 
so  that,  including  the  magistrate,  there 
will  be  fotir  men  on  the  staff.  Their 
duty  is  to  supervise  all  the  primary 
schools  in  the  district. 

As  to  the  inspection  of  the  schools,  the 
inspectors,  we  think,  should  be  appointed 
by  the  Minister  of  Education  and  sent 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  8i 

out  to  the  various  provinces  in  groups  of 
three  or  four.  This  system  has  the 
advantage  of  precluding  the  rise  of  any 
such  evils  as  '*  wire  pulling'*  and  the  like, 
that  might  appear  if  men  chosen  by  local 
authorities  were  to  serve  as  inspectors. 

The  decision  that  has  been  reached  by 
the  new  government  as  to  the  matter  of 
school  finance  is  very  good  and  falls  in 
line  with  a  centralized  scheme  of  edu- 
cation.^ 

There  is  probably  nothing  so  unsatis- 
factory about  the  present  primary  school 
system  in  China  as  the  deplorable  condi- 
tion of  most  of  the  school  buildings. 
There  seems  to  be  no  effort  made  on  the 
part  of  local  authorities  to  look  into  the 
physical  needs  of  the  children.  Radical 
changes  should  therefore  be  made  in 
this  direction.  Definite  requirements 
should  be  laid  down  concerning  ventila- 
tion, heating,  and  other  details  of  school 
hygiene.     Gymnastic   apparatus   should 

1  See  p.  70. 
6 


82  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

be  provided.  All  these  things  must  not 
be  left  to  the  whims  and  caprices  of 
local  authorities,  who  are  often  dishonest 
and  deficient  in  civil  virtues.  An  objec- 
tive standard  should  be  set  up  to  which 
they  should  conform. 

Conformably  to  a  centralized  system, 
the  power  to  draw  up  and  prescribe 
courses  of  study  should  be  left  in  the 
hands  of  the  state.  Any  books  written 
by  individuals  for  the  use  of  students  in 
the  lower  grades  of  schools  as  textbooks 
should  have  the  approval  of  the  Board 
of  Education.  As  already  indicated, 
China  needs  certain  common  national 
ideals.  The  best  means  to  the  end  is  a 
certain  degree  of  imiformity  in  school 
curricula. 

The  next  thing  that  demands  our 
attention  in  a  centralized  scheme  is  that 
concerning  school  attendance.  A  law 
of  compulsory  attendance,  should  be 
passed  and  enforced.  The  law  should 
provide  that  children  be  compelled  to 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  83 

attend  school  between  six  and  fotirteen 
years  of  age,  and  that  their  parents  or 
guardians  be  responsible  for  any  viola- 
tion thereof.  To  help  enforce  this  law, 
registers  should  be  placed  in  the  schools, 
and  the  name  of  the  children  who  are 
absent  should  be  noted  daily.  The  data 
gathered  from  these  records  should  be 
sent  annually  to  the  Board  of  Education, 
and  there  utilized  for  statistical  purposes. 
In  this  way  the  people  would  gradually 
become  reconciled  to  the  situation,  and 
the  habit  of  school  attendance  would 
become,  in  course  of  time,  automatic  and 
habitual. 

Of  course,  several  conditions  have  to 
be  fulfilled  to  realize  the  scheme  here 
suggested.  It  presupposes,  in  the  first 
place,  a  stifficiently  large  nimiber  of 
schools  to  make  them  accessible  to  the 
children  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
Again,  the  financial  condition  of  parents 
is  to  be  taken  into  account.  Even  if 
primary  education  could  be  made  free, 


84  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

which  is  at  present  practically  impossible 
owing  to  the  unsatisfactory  financial 
condition  of  China,  that  alone  would 
not  guarantee  regtdarity  of  attendance. 
In  the  homes  of  the  poor  the  children 
are  expected  not  only  to  support  them- 
selves but  to  contribute  toward  the  sup- 
port of  their  parents  as  well.  And  when 
one  comes  to  think  of  the  tremendous 
amount  of  inertia  or  passive  resistance 
that  has  to  be  overcome,  one  cannot  fail 
to  note  the  fact  that  a  great  many  obsta- 
cles stand  in  the  way  of  carrying  out 
successfully  a  system  of  comoulsory  edu- 
cation in  China. 

Finally,  a  system  of  centraHzation 
demands  that  teachers  acquire  a  sense 
of  the  national  importance  of  their 
work.  Their  tenure  of  office  should  be 
made  secure,  and  a  pension  system,  as 
the  new  government  has  come  to  know 
already,  should  be  adopted.  They  should 
be  treated  as  civil  servants.  Every 
effort  should  be  put  forth  to  draw  to  the 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  85 

teaching  profession  the  best  intelligence 
and  the  noblest  character  that  can  be 
secured. 

The  question  of  professional  training 
for  teachers  should  receive  special  atten- 
tion. All  secondary  teachers  should  re- 
ceive at  least  a  college  or  a  normal-school 
education,  while  primary  teachers  should 
be  chosen  from  among  graduates  of 
secondary  or  normal  schools. 

All  teachers  should  possess  such  quali- 
ties as  sympathy,  devotion  to  duty,  per- 
sonal magnetism,  and  the  like;  they 
should  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  subjects  they  teach,  a  good  general 
education,  and  some  knowledge  of  the 
subjects  that  are  connected  with  their 
profession,  such  as  pedagogy,  the  prin- 
ciples of  education,  and  the  history  of 
education. 

The  best  way  to  choose  teachers  is 
through  a  competitive  examination,  which 
should  be  conducted  under  the  auspices 
of  an  examination  committee  appointed 


86  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

by  the  Commissioner  of  Education.  The 
examination  may  consist  of  two  parts — 
oral  and  written.  The  successful  candi- 
dates should  be  assigned  to  various 
grades  of  schools,  according  to  their  abil- 
ity and  the  quality  of  their  training. 

This  is  an  outline  of  what  we  think 
should  be  done  in  connection  with  a 
centralized  system.  But  along  with  this 
scheme  of  centralization  there  should  be 
provided  as  much  elbow  room  for  local 
initiative  as  circumstances  permit.  Edu- 
cation should  be  socialized  or  "localized," 
as  well  as  nationalized.  In  the  words  of 
C.  H.  Thurber,*  ''Intellectual  affairs  grow 
and  flourish  best  where  a  warm  interest 
is  felt  for  them,  but  this  interest  is 
enduring  and  effectual  only  when  those 
who  share  it  are  not  mere  spectators, 
but  are  also  fellow  workers.'' 

Further,  while  national  education 
should  be  put  mainly  under  the  control 
of  the  central  authorities,  the  agencies 

1  The  Principles  of  School  Organization^  p.  21. 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  S7 

of  higher  education,  such  as  universities, 
technical  schools,  and  the  like,  should 
remain  independent  of  the  Board  of 
Education.  Decentralization  should  be 
the  rule  in  the  case  of  higher  education. 
Universities,  being  places  for  original 
research  and  investigation,  should  be 
free  from  all  implication  in  political 
changes  and  shiftings.  They  should  be 
controlled  by  a  Board  of  Trustees,  inde- 
pendent of  the  central  government.  Thus 
only  can  a  university  or  a  technical 
school  remain  unaffected  by  whatever 
changes  may  come  in  the  personnel  of 
the  Board  of  Education.  Decentraliza- 
tion in  higher  education  has  this  further 
advantage,  that  it  introduces  a  spirit 
of  rivalry  between  different  schools,  cre- 
ating among  them  an  ambition  to  excel 
each  other  in  making  contributions  to- 
ward human  knowledge. 

In  addition  to  the  question  of  centrali- 
zation or  decentralization,  there  are  other 
problems  waiting  for  solution.     One  of 


88  CHINESE  EDUCATION 

these  has  to  do  with  the  correlation  of 
studies,  that  is,  how  to  arrange  the  two 
categories  of  studies,  natural  and  human- 
istic, so  as  to  secure  the  greatest  possible 
degree  of  many-sidedness. 

As  we  have  already  indicated,  the  edu- 
cation of  China  is  yet  in  its  infant  stage. 
Many  things  have  yet  to  be  done  to  set 
it  upon  a  satisfactory  basis.  In  its  course 
of  development  many  mistakes  will  prob- 
ably be  made,  even  though  precautions 
are  taken.  But  China  has  this  advan- 
tage over  the  more  developed  nations, 
that  she  can,  by  studying  their  educa- 
tional history,  avoid  some  errors,  at 
least,  which  she  could  not  otherwise  do. 
China  is  free  to  appropriate  such  ele- 
ments in  the  systems  of  Europe  and 
America  as  will  suit  her  special  needs 
and  idiosyncrasies. 

Educational  reform  in  China  forms  the 
pivot  around  which  all  other  reforms 
turn.  It  is  to  education  that  China 
looks  for  the  supply  of  those  men  and 


THE  WESTERN   VIEWPOINT  89 

women  who  are  able  to  steer  the  Ship  of 
State  into  the  haven  of  safety.  We  shall, 
therefore,  conclude  this  paper  with  the 
words  of  R.  E.  Hughes : ^  ''  The  school  of 
to-morrow  will  aim  to  produce  mental 
alertness  in  its  pupils,  and  to  supply  the 
nation  with  a  corps  of  trained  intelli- 
gences. The  national  strength  and  great- 
ness will  be  estimated  in  terms  of  trained 
intelligence,  not  of  bullion  or  acreage." 

1  The  Making  of  Citizens,  p.  395. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Alexander,  G.  G.,  Confucius  the  Great  Teacher, 
London,  1885. 

Brinkley,  C.  F.,  China  —  Its  History,  Art,  and 
Literature.     New  York,  1880. 

Brown,  E.  E. ,  Our  Middle  Schools.    London,  1 9 1 o. 

Brown,  J.  F.,  American  High  School.  New 
'     York,  1909. 

Faber,  E.,  The  Mind  of  Mencius.  Translated 
by  Hutcheson.     New  York,  1889. 

Farrington,  F.  E.,  French  Secondary  and  Ele- 
mentary Schools.     New  York.  19 10. 

Giles,  H.  A.,  China  and  Chinese.  New  York, 
1902. 

Giles,  H.  A.,  Chinese  Four  Books.     London,  1898. 

HiRTH,  F.,  The  Ancient  History  of  China.  New 
York,  1900. 

HoLLiSTER,  H.  A.,  High  School  Administration. 
Boston,  1909. 

Hughes,  R.  E.,  The  Making  of  Citizens.  New 
York,  1904. 

King,  H.  E.,  The  Education  System  of  China  as 
Recently  Constructed.  The  United  States  De- 
partment of  Education.    Washington,  1 9 1 1 . 

90 


THE  WESTERN  VIEWPOINT  91 

Legge,  J.,  The  Chinese  Classics.  Translated  in 
Max  Muller's  Sacred  Books  of  the  East. 
London,  1885. 

Martin,  W.  A.  P.,  Awakening  of  China.  New 
York,  1907. 

Martin,  W.  A.  P.,  The  Lore  of  Cathay.  New- 
York,  1 90 1. 

Martin,  W.  A.  P.,  Chinese  Education.  The 
United  States  Department  of  Education, 
(Washington,  1905,  Vol.  I;  1908,  Vol.  I; 
1909,  Vol.  I). 

Monroe,  P.,  History  of  Edttcation.  New  York, 
1911. 

Monroe,  P.,  Cyclopedia  of  Education.  New 
York,  191 1,  Vols.  I,  II. 

Russell,  J.  E.,  German  Higher  School.  New 
York,  1899. 

Thurber,  C.  H.,  The  Principles  of  School  Organ- 
ization.   Worcester,  Mass. 

Thwing,  C.  F.,  Education  in  the  Far  East.  New 
York,  1909. 

Williams,  S.  W.,  The  Middle  Kingdom.  New 
York,  1883. 

In  addition  to  the  above  secondary  sources,  I  have 
gotten  all  of  the  material  for  the  first  four  chapters  of  this 
thesis  from  the  following  two  Chinese  works:  Wen  Shien 
Tung  Kao  (Cyclopedia  of  Chinese  Literature)  and  Chow 
Kung,  Chow  Li  (The  Institution  of  the  Chow  Dynasty). 


LOAN  DEPT. 

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